a decision that will lead to civil war. 49 B.C. As Caesar advances on Rome, Pompey and his allies retreat south, ultimately abandoning Italy for Greece. Caesar defeats Pompey’s forces in Spain.

His father died when Augustus was four. His prospects were bleak: Rome was dangerous, engulfed by civil war between power-hungry factions. One of these was led by his great-uncle, Julius Caesar.

Vespasian (9 – 79 AD / ruled 69 – 79 AD) worked hard to restore law, order and self-respect to Rome after the civil war. He established the new, Flavian dynasty. Born to a Roman knight and tax ...

What did it mean to be an emperor in ancient Rome? That is the question that Mary Beard sought to answer in her 2023 book, “Emperor of Rome.” She wrote, “Everyone then, including emperors, was ...